Saturday, January 04, 2020

ANS -- The Left is Dying Because it’s Turned Into a Bonfire of Vanities

This article is an exaggerated rant about the left.  the Big Idea in it is that The Left needs some Big Ideas to center around. I agree with that -- liberals need to talk about the unifying ideas behind all the policies.  There are lots and lots of comments on the site -- but the structure of the site is annoying.  Here's the article, and I might add a comment I made if I can find it.  
--Kim



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The Left is Dying Because it's Turned Into a Bonfire of Vanities

How the Left's Gave Up on it's Great, Timeless Projects for Political Correctness, Twitter Wars, and Narcissism (and That Cost it a Future)

I read today that koalas in Australia were begging human beings for water — fleeing a burning continent. Can you imagine that level of fear and suffering? That kind of abject terror and subjection? Isn't that, too, a kind of genocide? That's a picture above — of a firefighter and a koala, standing side by side, watching their worlds turn to embers. It's an aching, heartbreaking snapshot of a troubled age.

Now I'm going to say something controversial, uh oh. And yet there's the left…obsessed with whether a movie has the right racial representation…whom to attack today for not using the right pronoun…which comic book hero is properly intersectional…which celebrity to cancel…and so forth…while the planet is on fire…animals are dying off by the billions…the global economy falls apart…half the world lives in despair and fear…and fascism wrecks what's left of democracy. What the? How did it come to this? Wait — maybe that last paragraph drove you crazy, you think I'm mean and horrible, and you're wondering: come to what?

Hello, this is planet earth calling. This was the worst decade for the left since the 1930s. It was routed everywhere across the globe: from America to Britain to Europe to India to Brazil and beyond. Why did the left get shattered? Because it got wrapped up in — let me put this gently — narcissistic BS: identity politics, gender pronouns, political correctness, cancel culture, and so forth. That's going to offend some of you. So be it. I think many of you need to grow up — badly. It's not my opinion — it's grim reality. The left is, like I noted…losing, badly…almost everywhere.

It shouldn't take a genius to see a fatal mismatch between the modern left's childish, self-absorbed, narcissistic priorities…and the age's desperate, terrible needs. Mommy! I need my very own comic book superhero!! Mommy!!!!! Tell me how special I am!! Meanwhile…the planet's burning and life on it is dying off. What the?

Hello, this is planet earth calling again. Do you think those desperate, terrified koalas give a damn about your self-absorption…which pronoun you can't live without…which celebrity's getting cancelled on Twitter today…how intersectional Captain America is? Which one do you think is more important — your fragile ego, or anyone and anything else's…actual existence? Hint: if the answer is you…you are still a child, my friend. You are the reason the left lost the battle for the last decade. I'm sorry to say it. You must care about something larger and worthier than yourself to have any claim whatsoever to being on the left. And none of the above — identity politics, cancel culture, comic-book leftism — is caring about anything bigger than…yourself.

The left got routed this decade because it was so self-absorbed in narcissistic nonsense — twitter warz, attack mobs, groupthink, ideological conformity, college-level extremism — that it stopped having big ideas. Without big ideas, it stopped being relevant to the world. There was nothing for it, really, to change…beyond pronouns and comic book heroes. Sure, it changed those. But who cared, really? And so the great, enduring projects of the left — genuinely expanding and improving democracy, economies, societies, civilization — stalled and went into reverse. There they are…turning to dust, while the left preens in a narcissistic bonfire of the vanities.

I can't overstate the lesson.

The left needs to get real, now, and start mattering to the world, future, history, and the planet — or else it goes on dying. Yes, really. It's that simple. What do I mean? The left needs epic, bold, big ideas about it's fundamental aspirations again. I mean "big ideas" in a precise way: a) global, b) foundational, c) status-quo shattering ideas — again — to transform all of the following. The global economy. Democracy. The nation state. Personhood. The quality of life. Dignity, meaning, and purpose. The key word is "transforming." It means "a permanent state of change." Those are the agendas the left needs in the 21st century.

If you think about that for even a second, an alarming fact quickly becomes clear. The left has precisely zero ideas for any of those agendas right about now, on that scale. Big ideas for the next global economy, ecology, democracy, for personhood, for the nation state, for dignity and purpose….are just nonexistent. It had them, once — after World War II, before World War I, and so on. Today — it has none. That is why it is irrelevant and impotent. It literally has nothing to offer a troubled world except the mentality of an insecure teenager.

You see, the left can't go on pretending it doesn't need to have big ideas. Why not? It's work isn't even half done. We don't have anything like a fair global economy, a reasonable distribution of resources, a just allocation of power, sane societies, a world in which everyone lives in dignity, and so forth, all the big projects of the left. What we do have, instead, are fascists on the march — and those poor koalas fleeing a burning continent — and all that's largely because the left gave up on its work without seeing it through. What the? So how can we change all that? How do we have big ideas again?

Let me give you an example. How should the left go about reinventing democracy?

Remember those koalas? Why can't they…vote, too? Now, that might strike you as an outlandish fiction — good, it means you're thinking — sit with me for a moment, and let's think about it.

What if democracy included…the animals…oceans…rivers…reefs…forests? They're all living things, too. Their future is very much at stake, too. So why aren't they included in "our" decision-making? Ethically, morally, it's impossible to see why not. Future generations will regard the exclusion of the rest of the planet from what we conveniently call democracy as something very much akin to slavery. Because when we say that all those living beings and ecosystems aren't part of democracy, that is exactly what we're saying: they're the precise equivalent, morally and legally, of our slaves, whom we are free to exploit and abuse and discard.

But how would we go about including the animals, oceans, rivers, reefs, and forests in democracy? It's not that complicated, really. We give them the right to vote — by proxy, if nothing else. Now, you're right to say that they "can't vote." Or can they? It's pretty easy to imagine how any sane koala would have voted over the last few decades, isn't it? For less emissions, and more green investment. It's pretty easy to see how the oceans would vote, too: for less plastic and less pollution and less fishing and so on, and, again more investment in them.

In all the cases above, these parties would simply do what we tend to do: vote for our own nourishment. Probably, they'd be a lot wiser than us. I doubt the koalas would vote to destroy our cities. I doubt the oceans would object to a reasonable amount of shipping. I doubt the reefs would mind us marveling at their beauty. And so on.

If you want to get technical, we could simply convene a group of hundreds or thousands experts from all these domains — zoology, oceanography, climate science, and so forth — and put the question to them: how would their new constituencies, animals, oceans, and so forth, vote, if they could. Give it some kind of official sounding name, like the Post-Human Democracy Consensus. We could expand that, and create whole new industries and jobs, devoted to answering that question — how would these parties participate in democracy, if they could?

Legally, to make that happen, we'd need to give oceans, reefs, rivers, and animals personhood. It's something we should have done long ago. Part of the reason that we can genocide them with shrugs and cute tweets is that they are not legal persons at all, and we are. So they enjoy no protections, rights, guarantees, or privileges. Like I said, they are the modern-day equivalent of slaves. But they shouldn't be. To change that, to give them personhood, is again a task that would create whole new industries and jobs, this time in politics, lobbying, law, finance, and insurance.

Now. Like I said — that might all strike you as an outlandish fantasy. So what? That's the point. So was the idea that women could vote…that black people could vote…that anyone who wasn't a property owning white man could vote…not so long ago. And today we have something just a little bit more like a true democracy.

Sure, doing something remotely like the above will take the work of maybe a century, at least half of one. That's the point. Sure, it will take thousands, probably millions, of people, working together. Sure, it will take furious, heated battle. Absolutely, it will require whole new mindsets and skillsets. That's what a politics capable of changing the world is. That's what a true vision and agenda is. That's what the "work" of now really is.

The left has no ideas left at this level: ideas about how to reinvent democracy, the global economy, power, politics …anything…beyond pronouns and whatnot. But those are the ideas that it needs, badly, if it's to matter ever again. Let me continue with democracy as an example.

The project of building a true democracy is far from done — and it's about way more than who plays what comic book hero or what celebrity gets cancelled today. Those are adolescent concerns, and that's being generous. Where does democracy really need to go? Democracy just means self-governance. And we are not granting that right or privilege to the planet and life on it. We are acting like its masters and lords — not its equals, abusing life on it like our slaves. Democratically, we have a very, very long way to go, before we can regard ourselves as having anything like a genuine global democracy — which means that every living being is regarded with respect, has dignity, and can live a self-directed life. Unless we do that, the planet just goes on…dying…and probably takes us with it.

See my point a little bit? Let me make it clearer.

How come everything I just discussed with you…reinventing democracy…isn't one of the left's big ideas to champion for the next century? Note, I'm not saying my idea is the right or best or only one. (And sure, there are plenty of brave and smart people working at the edges of such notions. But they are largely unknown — precisely because the left isn't interested.) I'm saying that the left doesn't have ideas of that scale anymore because it's not… interested in them. It doesn't care about them. And that's because it's obsessed with narcissistic BS. I want my representation in graphic novels, mommy! I want you to call me a special name today!! Me, me, me, mommy!! Children. The future demands more from you than entitled, self-absorbed narcissism. It is not just about you. It is about all of us. In the most expansive sense we can imagine. That is where any wisdom about tomorrow really begins. Remember that pic above?

Let me say it again. The left doesn't have any big ideas left because it isn't interested in genuinely changing the world for the better, in big and bold ways, anymore. The left doesn't have a single idea, in fact, at remotely the scale above: a) global b) transformational c) permanent d) systemic. If you doubt that, go ahead and ask yourself if you can name one. The only one remotely close is the Green New Deal, and even that's temporary and national, not permanent and global.

So what is the weak, feeble left of today interested in? It's only really interested in itself. That is what identity politics really is. I am interested in me, you don't matter. But that is not really leftism. It is the opposite. It is tribalism. It is the clan and the bloodline. Only I matter, and my position in the hierarchy within my tribe, and my tribe's position in the hierarchy of all tribes. But those are the foundational beliefs of the right. They lead directly to bitterness, conflict, violence, selfishness, conformity, arrogance, entitlement, and a preening sense of moral superiority — all, increasingly, sins easy to see on the left, now.

It's one of this last decade's great ironic tragedies that the left grew mesmerized by the right's foundational ideas — my identity is all I am, all I care about, all I hope to be!! — and still doesn't know it. And it's a damning indictment of the left that this kind of thinking has left it incapable of caring about the world, the future, history, humanity, or life.

Imagine all those koalas for a moment. They could care more or less about every single thing the modern left thinks is vitally important: what you "identify" as, what your pronouns are, who you date, how you dress, who you're attacking on Twitter today for not telling you you're the most important and special person in the world, and so forth. So too could the rivers and oceans and reefs. So too could the billions of shivering, starving kids, living in despair and ruin. So, too, could the billions living without money, water, food, sanitation, or education. "Mommy!! Me me me!!" is not the basis for a working politics now — or ever!!

The left's concerns stopped mattering to anyone but a tiny fringe because the truth is they became profoundly superficial, selfish, narrow, and self-entitled. It is a bonfire of the vanities — burning itself down. That, my friends, is reality. The rest…is BS. I'd say I'm sorry for the reality check, but I'm not. I expect a fatal narcissism and stupidity from the right. But I expect better — call me a fool — from the left.

Umair
December 2019

Eudaimonia and Co

Eudaimonia & Co

There were a lot of people taking the article literally and then being outraged by it being so extreme.  So I wrote this response: 

All you readers who are outraged, please calm down and realize that Mr. Haque's technique is hyperbole — he exaggerates to call your attention to a problem. It's a literary device.

Sometimes an exaggeration turns out to be true/accurate. We live in unreal times — Trump is ridiculous, but he has very real power. The world stage is becoming so mean and frightening that people are often retreating into their own lives to tamp down their anxieties about very dangerous world problems. Not all of us, and not all the time, but there is this tendency to concentrate on being critical of each other on personal level things to avoid having to work on world scale stuff where we feel powerless. So much meanness in the public world is making us more mean too — you can't help but being affected by it.

In society, there are always people who are out where the wave is breaking, who are on the bleeding edge of change, and people who are pulled along by them, but more slowly, and also people who are digging in their heels and resisting change with all their might. I submit that all of those are necessary, but they must be balanced, and it would help if they weren't trying to destroy each other. Right now, the "digging in their heels" people are trying to destroy the bleeding edge people rather than dialoguing with them. This will destroy democracy — if it hasn't already.

But so often, the result is the opposite of what one expects: As we used to say in the 60s: "you have not converted a man because you have silenced him." Many people believe the myth that punishment works — Trump thinks by killing the Iranian general he will cow the Iranians, rather than inspire them to revenge. This is crazy. Punishment more often evokes smoldering rebellion than compliance (in the long run).

What liberals and progressives need is to get together and make a plan — and then finance and execute it. Just like the conservatives did. There are six different brands of liberals, and they must get together and see that there are some big things uniting all of the issues. And then make a plan, and act.



Friday, January 03, 2020

ANS -- We may finally know what causes Alzheimer’s – and how to stop it

this article is a year old, but it's very intriguing.  If you don't want to get into details, read the first paragraph.  the hypothesis is that one of the bacteria that causes gum disease also causes Alzheimer's.  So floss!
--Kim


We may finally know what causes Alzheimer's – and how to stop it

HEALTH 23 January 2019 , updated 30 January 2019
New Scientist Default Image
Alzheimer's disease has destroyed neurons in the right-hand brain above

Jessica Wilson/Science Photo Library

AFTER decades of disappointment, we may have a new lead on fighting Alzheimer's disease. Compelling evidence that the condition is caused by a bacterium involved in gum disease could prove a game-changer in tackling one of medicine's biggest mysteries, and lead to effective treatments or even a vaccine.

As populations have aged, dementia has skyrocketed to become the fifth biggest cause of death worldwide. Alzheimer's constitutes some 70 per cent of these cases (see "What is Alzheimer's disease"), yet we don't know what causes it. The condition, which results in progressive loss of memory and cognitive function, usually over a decade or so, is devastating both to those who have it and to their loved ones.

The condition often involves the accumulation of two types of proteins – called amyloid and tau – in the brain. As these are among the earliest physical signs of the disease, the leading hypothesis since 1984 has been that the condition is caused by the defective control of these proteins, especially amyloid, which accumulates to form large, sticky plaques in the brain.

The bulk of research into understanding and treating Alzheimer's has centred on this "amyloid hypothesis". Huge sums of money have been invested in experiments involving mice genetically modified to produce amyloid, and in developing drugs that block or destroy amyloid proteins, or sometimes degraded tangles of tau.

It has become clear that this approach isn't working. In 2018 alone, the US National Institutes of Health spent $1.9 billion on Alzheimer's research. But according to a recent study, the failure rate of drug development for Alzheimer's has been 99 per cent.

Some have begun to question the amyloid hypothesis. The lack of results has been compounded by the discovery that people – including some in their 90s with exceptional memories – can have brain plaques and tangles without having dementia. In a review of the research to date last year, Bryce Vissel at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia, concluded that there isn't sufficient data to suggest that "amyloid has a central or unique role in Alzheimer's".

"The bacteria in the brain are not the result of Alzheimer's, but they could be the cause"

In 2016, researchers discovered that amyloid seems to function as a sticky defence against bacteria. They found that the protein can act as an anti-microbial compound that kills bacteria, and when they injected bacteria into the brains of mice engineered to make Alzheimer's proteins, plaques developed round bacterial cells overnight.

Accompany Richard Dawkins around Hawaii: Sailing on a New Scientist Discovery Tour

At the time, the team said it still believed that amyloid itself went on to cause the brain damage of Alzheimer's, not bacteria. But a spate of subsequent studies have looked at microbes. Bacteria have been found in the brains of people who had Alzheimer's when they were alive. But it hasn't been clear whether the bacteria caused the disease or were simply able to enter brains damaged by Alzheimer's.

Multiple teams have been researching Porphyromonas gingivalis, the main bacterium involved in gum disease, which is a known risk factor for Alzheimer's. So far, teams have found that P. gingivalis invades and inflames brain regions affected by Alzheimer's; that gum infections can worsen symptoms in mice genetically engineered to have Alzheimer's; and that it can cause Alzheimer's-like brain inflammation, neural damage and amyloid plaques in healthy mice.

A whole new hypothesis

"When science converges from multiple independent laboratories like this, it is very compelling," says Casey Lynch of Cortexyme, a pharmaceutical firm in San Francisco.

Now researchers from Cortexyme and several universities have reported finding the two toxic enzymes that P. gingivalis uses to feed on human tissue in 99 and 96 per cent of 54 human Alzheimer's brain samples taken from the hippocampus – a brain area important for memory (Science Advances, doi.org/gftvdt). These protein-degrading enzymes are called gingipains, and they were found in higher levels in brain tissue that also had more tau fragments and thus more cognitive decline.

The team also found genetic material from P. gingivalis in the cerebral cortex – a region involved in conceptual thinking – in all three Alzheimer's brains they looked for it in.

"This is the first report showing P. gingivalis DNA in human brains, and the associated gingipains co-localising with plaques," says Sim Singhrao at the University of Central Lancashire, UK, who wasn't involved in the study. Her team has previously found that P. gingivalis actively invades the brains of mice with gum infections.

When Lynch and her colleagues looked at brain samples from people without Alzheimer's, they saw that some had P. gingivalis and protein accumulations, but at low levels. We already know that amyloid and tau can accumulate in the brain for 10 or 20 years before Alzheimer's symptoms begin. This, says the team, shows that P. gingivalis doesn't get into the brain as a result of Alzheimer's – but could be the cause.

bacteria
The Porphyromonas gingivalis bacteria that can cause gum disease

A. Dowsett, Public Health England/Science Photo Library

When the team gave P. gingivalis gum disease to mice, it led to brain infection, amyloid production, tangles of tau protein and neural damage in the regions and nerves normally affected by Alzheimer's. This suggests causation, says Lynch.

She adds that P. gingivalis fulfils an updated set of criteria for attributing a disease to a particular pathogen. These conditions are named Koch's postulates, after Robert Koch, a founder of the germ theory of disease.

"The study does address most of Koch's postulates," says Robert Genco of the University at Buffalo, New York. "Future studies need to be in humans to be convincing."

We don't know how P. gingivalis gets into the brain, but there are plausible routes it could take. Your mouth normally hosts a diverse and relatively stable community of bacteria, but when dental plaque builds under the edge of your gums, it can form inflamed pockets in which P. gingivalis can thrive and release toxins.

This inflammation can lead to chronic periodontitis and tooth loss, and some studies have shown that people with fewer teeth are more likely to have dementia. The inflammation and toxins caused by P. gingivalis damage the lining of your mouth, which may make it possible for oral bacteria to enter the bloodstream and then other organs. Even if you don't have gum disease, transient damage to your mouth lining from eating or tooth-brushing can let mouth bacteria into your blood, says Lynch.

The blood-brain barrier should protect your brain from microbes, but P. gingivalis can invade white blood cells and the cells lining blood vessels, so might cross it that way. It may also invade cranial nerves near the mouth, then spread from cell to cell towards the brain over a period of years.

"This is why years of efforts to treat Alzheimer's have seen few results"

As to how P. gingivalis might cause dementia after it arrives in the brain, there are two clear possibilities. It may trigger the release of amyloid, the brain's method of trying to contain the infection, and this may then kill neurons.

Or P. gingivalis may directly damage the brain. We already know that Alzheimer's involves inflammation, an excessive immune response that ends up killing neurons instead of protecting them. P. gingivalis is known to cause inflammation in gum tissue, and it may do so in the brain as well.

In response to the new findings, David Reynolds of the Alzheimer's UK charity said he is dubious that P. gingivalis causes Alzheimer's, because of the evidence showing that a person's genes play a crucial role in the disease. "Strong genetic evidence indicates that factors other than bacterial infections are central to the development of Alzheimer's, so these new findings need to be taken in the context of this existing research," he said in a statement.

But a bacterial hypothesis for Alzheimer's doesn't conflict with genetic evidence. The human body's propensity for inflammation can vary according to genetic variations that affect our immune systems, and this may influence how much damage P. gingivalis induces in a brain.

The biggest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's is a variant of the gene that makes the ApoE immune protein. Last year, a team in Sweden found that the gingipains released by P. gingivalis break up the ApoE protein into fragments, cleaving it at the site of a particular amino acid within the protein, and that these fragments may harm nerves. The ApoE4 variant of this protein contains more of this amino acid, suggesting that the reason people who make this variant are at a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's may be because harmful levels of ApoE protein fragments build up more quickly in their brains than in those of other people.

Hope for treatments

The speed at which damage accumulates is a key factor in the disease. Although many people harbour P. gingivalis in their mouths, only some develop Alzheimer's. Because it can be decades before Alzheimer's symptoms appear, whether a person develops the condition could come down to how much damage occurs before they die of other causes.

"Alzheimer's strikes people who accumulate gingipains and damage in the brain fast enough to develop symptoms during their lifetimes," says Lynch. She says her team's findings are a "universal hypothesis of pathogenesis", fully explaining the causes of Alzheimer's disease.

But Vissel warns that Alzheimer's is a complex disease. "The answer is unlikely to be one-cause-fits-all. We need to keep open eyes."

However, the new study is "very exciting", he says. "Alzheimer's is so common in people at advanced age that I think it can only be either some intrinsic property of the brain, or an infection."

If this new hypothesis of Alzheimer's is borne out, the good news is that it could lead to effective treatments for the condition. Although there is plenty you can do to reduce your risk of gum disease, Cortexyme is hoping it can stop or even reverse Alzheimer's using molecules it has developed that block gingipains. The firm found that giving some of these to mice with P. gingivalis infections reduced brain infection, halted amyloid production, lowered brain inflammation and even rescued damaged neurons. "This provides hope of treating or preventing Alzheimer's disease one day," says Singhrao.

Cortexyme reported last year that the best of its gingipain blockers had passed initial safety tests in people, and entered the brain. It also seemed to improve symptoms in participants with Alzheimer's. The firm will launch a larger trial later this year.

The company also plans to test the drug against gum disease itself. Efforts to fight that have led a team in Melbourne to develop a vaccine for P. gingivalis that started tests in 2018. A vaccine for gum disease would be welcome – and if it also stops Alzheimer's the impact could be enormous.

It is early days for this new hypothesis, and if the pursuit of amyloid-busting drugs over the past few decades has taught us anything, says Vissel, it is that a complex disease may not have a simple mechanism. Even if P. gingivalis is confirmed as a cause of Alzheimer's, we don't know yet whether it will turn out to be the only cause or one of several factors contributing to the disease.

"This paper is very important," says George Perry at the University of Texas at San Antonio. "The view that pathogens might be one of several paths leading to Alzheimer's disease fits my current thoughts of amyloid and tau being critical brain responses to injury, instead of the initiators."

That, he says, is why years of efforts to treat Alzheimer's by removing those proteins have seen few results: they are symptoms of the disease, not its cause. "This is a further turning point in the understanding that infections and inflammation can be at the heart of Alzheimer's disease."

What is Alzheimer's disease?

There are many types and causes of dementia, but Alzheimer's disease is the most common form, accounting for between 60 and 70 per cent of all cases.

Common early symptoms of Alzheimer's include short-term memory loss, apathy and depressed mood, but these symptoms are often just seen as being a part of normal ageing, making early diagnosis difficult.

Doctors diagnose Alzheimer's on the basis of medical examination, patient history and cognitive tests, and can use imaging to rule out other forms of dementia. However, a definitive diagnosis of Alzheimer's is only possible after death, when examination of brain tissue can reveal whether a person had the deposits of amyloid and tau proteins (see main story) that are characteristic of the condition.

The vast majority of people with Alzheimer's are diagnosed with the condition after the age of 65, but clumps of amyloid protein can begin to build up in the brain some 15 or 20 years before symptoms appear. We have long hoped for diagnostic tests that can determine if someone has Alzheimer's before death, and spot the condition before extensive brain damage has occurred. Donna Lu

Bad bacteria and other microbes

It might seem surprising that a mouth bacterium has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (see main story). But it wouldn't be the first time an illness has turned out to have an unexpected infectious origin.

The iconic case is stomach ulcers, once thought to be caused by stress or excess acid, and treated with acid-lowering medications. Then Australian doctor Barry Marshall showed that a stomach bacterium called Helicobacter pylori was behind them, a feat that won him a Nobel prize.

Streptococcus bacteria, which cause tonsillitis and "strep throat", are suspected of triggering obsessive-compulsive disorder in children. The thinking is that the immune system's attack on the bacteria cross-reacts with certain human proteins, causing an autoimmune attack against the person's own brain tissue.

Bacteria aren't the only ones under suspicion. There are indications that a virus is behind some cases of obesity. And one study has found that people with antibodies to a single-celled brain parasite called Toxoplasma gondii, which is spread in cat faeces, are more likely to develop schizophrenia. Some people think up to a third of cases could be caused by infection with T. gondii.

But not all purported links bear fruit. Twenty years ago, there was great excitement when a bacterium that can cause pneumonia lung infections was found in the blood vessel plaques that cause heart disease. But giving people antibiotics to kill this bug didn't help reduce heart attacks. Clare Wilson



Read more: We may finally know what causes Alzheimer's – and how to stop it